Current Therapeutic Approaches to Renal Cell Carcinoma

Everolimus is also an orally administered derivative of rapamycin that is approved for use after failure of VEGF-targeted therapies. The results of the landmark trial RECORD-1 demonstrated that everolimus (10 mg orally daily) is effective at prolonging PFS (4 versus 1.9 months; P < 0.001) when compared with best supportive care, a viable treatment option at the time of approval [78]. The most common adverse effects of everolimus are stomatitis, rash, fatigue, asthenia, and diarrhea. As with temsirolimus, elevations in glucose, lipids, and triglycerides and noninfectious pneumonitis can occur.

TKI + mTOR Inhibitor

Lenvatinib is also a small molecule targeting multiple tyrosine kinases, primarily VEGF2. Combined with the mTOR inhibitor, everolimus, it has been shown to be an effective regimen in patients with metastatic RCC who have failed other therapies. In a randomized phase 2 study involving patients with advanced or metastatic clear-cell RCC, patients were randomly assigned to receive either lenvatinib (24 mg/day), everolimus (10 mg/day), or lenvatinib plus everolimus (18 mg/day and 5 mg/day, respectively). Patients received the treatment continuously on a 28-day cycle until progression or inability to tolerate toxicity. Patients in the lenvatinib plus everolimus arm had median PFS of 14.6 months (95% CI 5.9 to 20.1) versus 5.5 months (95% CI 3.5 to 7.1) with everlolimus alone (HR 0.40; 95% CI 0.24 to 0.68; P = 0.0005). PFS with levantinib alone was 7.4 months (95% CI 5.6 to 10.20; HR 0.66, 95% CI 0.30 to 1.10, P = 0.12). In addition, PFS with levantinib alone was significantly prolonged in comparison with everolimus alone (HR 0.61; 95% CI 0.38 to 0.98; P = 0.048). Grade 3 or 4 toxicity were less frequent in the everolimus only arm and the most common grade 3 or 4 toxicity in the lenvatinib plus everolimus arm was diarrhea. The results of this study show that the combination of lenvatinib plus everolimus is an acceptable second-line option for treatment of patients with advanced or metastatic RCC [55].

Case Continued

The patient is initially started on pazopanib and tolerates the medication well, with partial response to the treatment. However, on restaging scans he is noted to have small bowel perforation. Pazopanib is discontinued until the patient has a full recovery. He is then started on everolimus. Restaging scans done 3 months after starting everolimus demonstrate disease progression.

• What is the appropriate next step in treatment?

PD1 Blockade

Programmed death 1 (PD-1) protein is a T-cell inhibitory receptor with 2 ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2. PD-L1 is expressed on many tumors. Blocking the interaction between PD-1 and PD-L1 by anti-PD-1 humanized anti-bodies potentiates a robust immune response and has been a breakthrough in the field of cancer immunotherapy [79]. Previous studies have demonstrated that overexpression of PD-L1 leads to worse outcomes and poor prognosis in patients with RCC [80]. Nivolumab, a fully human IgG4 PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibitor, blocks the interaction between PD-1 and its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2. In a randomized, open-label, phase 3 study comparing nivolumab with everolimus in patients with RCC who had previously undergone treatment with other standard therapies, Motzer and colleagues [81] demonstrated a longer overall survival time and fewer adverse effects with nivolumab. In this study, 821 patients with clear-cell RCC were randomly assigned to receive nivolumab (3 mg/kg of body weight IV every 2 weeks) or everolimus (10 mg orally once daily). The median overall survival time with nivolumab was 25 months versus 19.6 months with everolimus ( P < 0.0148). Nineteen percent of patients receiving nivolumab experienced grade 3 or 4 toxicities, with fatigue being the most common adverse effect. Grade 3 or 4 toxicities were observed in 37% of patients treated with everolimus, with anemia being the most common. Based on the results of this trial, on November 23, 2015, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved nivolumab to treat patients with metastatic RCC who have received a prior antiangiogenic therapy.