Article

Nutrition-Related Considerations in Soccer: A Review

Publish date: December 3, 2018

References

Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. J Sports Sci. 2003;21:519-528.
Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, Bencke J, Kjaer M, Bangsbo J. Muscle and blood metabolites during a soccer game: implications for sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1165-1174.
Di Salvo V, Gregson W, Atkinson G, Tordoff P, Drust B. Analysis of high intensity activity in Premier League soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30:205-212.
Di Salvo V, Baron R, Tschan H, Calderon Montero FJ, Bachl N, Pigozzi F. Performance characteristics according to playing position in elite soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2007;28:222-227.
Reilly T, Thomas V. Estimated daily energy expenditures of professional association footballers. Ergonomics. 1979;22:541-548.
Osgnach C, Poser S, Bernardini R, Rinaldo R, di Prampero P.E. Energy cost and metabolic power in elite soccer: A new match analysis approach. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:170-178.
Anderson L, Orme P, Naughton RJ, Close, GL, Milsom J, Rydings D, et al. Energy intake and expenditure of professional soccer players of the English Premier League: evidence of carbohydrate periodization. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2017;1-25.
Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL. Assessing the energy expenditure of elite female soccer layers: a preliminary study. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;2780-2786.
Bartlett JD, Hawley JA, Morton JP. Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(1):1, 3-12.
Anderson L, Orme P, Di Michele R, Close GL, Morgans R, Drust B, Morton JP. Quantification of training load during one-, two- and three-game week schedules in professional soccer players from the English Premier League: implications for carbohydrate periodisation. J Sports Sci. 2016;34;1250-1259.
Hawley JA, Morton JP. Ramping up the signal: promoting endurance training adaptation in skeletal muscle by nutritional manipulation. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2014;41:608-613.
Saltin B. Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. 1973;:137-146.
Balsom PD, Wood K, Olsson P, Ekblom B. Carbohydrate intake and multiple sprint sports: With special reference to football (soccer). Int J Sports Med. 1999;20:48-52.
Neufer PD, Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Mitchell JB, Houmard J. Improvements in exercise performance: Effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J Appl Physiol. 1987;62:983-988.
Sherman WM, Brodowicz G, Wright DA, Allen WK, Simonsen J, Dernbach A. Effects of 4 h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21:598-604.
Baker LB, Rollo I, Stein KW, Jeukendrup AE. Acute effects of carbohydrate supplementation on intermittent sports performance. Nutrients. 2015;7:5733-5763.
Goedecke JH, White NJ, Chicktay W, Mahomed H, Durandt J, Lambert MI. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on performance during a simulated soccer match. Nutrients. 2013;5:5193-5204.
Nicholas CW, Williams C, Lakomy HK, Phillips G, Nowitz A. Influence of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on endurance capacity during intermittent, high-intensity shuttle running. J Sports Sci. 1995;13:283-290.
Burke LM, van Loon LJC, Hawley JA. Post-exercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2016;122:1055-1067.
Rodriquez NR, DiMarco NM, Langley S. Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(3):509-527.
Romagnoli M, Sanchis-Gomar F, Alis R, Risso-Ballester J, Bosio A, Graziani RL, Rampinini E. Changes in muscle damage, inflammation, and fatigue-related parameters in young elite soccer players after a match. J. Sports Med Phys Fit. 2016;56:1198-1205.
Res PT, Groen B, Pennings B, Beelen M, Wallis GA, Gijsen AP, et al.Protein ingestion before sleep improves postexercise overnight recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:1560-1569.
Snijders T, Res PT, Smeets JSJ, Van Vliet S, Van Kranenburg J, Maase K, et al.Protein ingestion before sleep increases muscle mass and strength gains during prolonged resistance-type exercise training in healthy young men. J Nutr. 2015;145:1178-1184.
Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids and athletics. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2007;6230-236.
Peoples GE, McLennan PL, Howe P, Groeller H. Fish oil reduces apparent myocardial oxygen consumption in trained cyclists but does not change time to fatigue. Presented at the Fourth International Conference on Nutrition and Fitness; May 25-29, 2000; Ancient Olympia, Greece.
Burke LM, Collier GR, Beasley S.K, Davis PG, Fricker PA, Heeley P, et al. Effect of coingestion of fat and protein with carbohydrate feedings on muscle glycogen storage. J Appl Physiol. 1995;78:2187-2192.
Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA. Influence of differing macronutrient intakes on muscle glycogen resynthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1998;84:890-896.
Reinke S, Taylor W.R, Duda GN, von Haehling S, Reinke P, Volk H-D et al. Absolute and functional iron deficiency in professional athletes during training and recovery. Int J Cardiol. 2012;156:186-191.
Escanero JF, Villanueva J, Rojo A, Herrera A, del Diego C, Guerra M. Iron stores in professional athletes throughout the sports season. Physiol Behav. 1997;62:811-814.
Heisterberg MF, Fahrenkrug J, Krustrup P, Storskov A, Kjær, M, Andersen JL. Extensive monitoring
Landahl G, Adolfsson P, Borjesson M, Mannheimer C, Rodjer S. Iron deficiency and anemia: a common problem in female elite soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2005;15(6):689-694.
Sinha A, Hollingsworth K, Ball S, Cheetham T. Improving the vitamin D status of vitamin D deficient adults is associated with improved mitochondrial oxidative function in skeletal muscle. Endocrine Abstracts, 2013;31.OC1.6
Shuler FD, Wingate MK, Moore GH, Giangarra C. Sports health benefits of vitamin D. Sports Health. 2012;4:496-501.
Hamilton B, Whiteley R, Farooq A, Chalabi H. Vitamin D concentration in 342 professional football players and association with lower limb isokinetic function. J Sci. Med Sport. 2014;17:139-143.
Ksiażek A, Zagrodna A, Dziubek W, Pietraszewski B, Ochmann B, Słowińska-Lisowska M,25(OH)D3 levels relative to muscle strength and maximum oxygen uptake in athletes. J Hum Kinet. 2016;50:71-77.
Kopeć A, Solarz K, Majda F, Słowińska-Lisowska M, Medraś M. An evaluation of the levels of vitamin D and bone turnover markers after the summer and winter periods in Polish professional soccer players. J Hum Kinet. 2013;38:135-140.
Vander Slagmolen G, van Hellemondt FJ, Wielders JPM. Do professional soccer players have a vitamin D status supporting optimal performance in winter time? J Sports Med Doping Stud. 2014,4:2.
Morton JP, Iqbal Z, Drust B, Burgess D, Close GL, Brukner PD. Seasonal variation in vitamin D status in professional soccer players of the English Premier League. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37:798-802.
Lozano-Berges G, Matute-Llorente A, Gonzalez-Aguero A, Gomez-Bruton A, Gomez-Cabelloa A, Vincente-Rodriguez G, Casajus JA. Soccer helps build strong bones during growth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(3):295-310.
Burke LM. Fluid balance during team sports. J Sports Sci. 1997;15:287-295.
Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, Shirreffs SM. Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004;14:333-346.
Brendon P, McDermott, P, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Cheuvront SN, et al. National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for the Physically Active. J Athl Train. 2017;52(9):877-895.
Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, Maughan RJ, Serratosa L, Zachwieja JJ. The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26: 90-95.
Maughan RJ, Watson P, Evans GH, Broad N, Shirreffs SM. Water balance and salt losses in competitive football. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17:583-594.
Aragón-Vargas LF, Moncada-Jiménez J, Hernández-Elizondo J, Barrenechea A,Monge-Alvarado M. Evaluation of pre-game hydration status, heat stress, and fluid balance during professional soccer competition in the heat. Eur J Sport Sci. 2009;9:269-276.
Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM, Merson SJ, Horswill CA. Fluid and electrolyte balance in elite male football (soccer) players training in a cool environment. J Sports Sci. 2005;23:73-79.
Duffield R, McCall A, Coutts AJ, Peiffer JJ. Hydration, sweat and thermoregulatory responses to professional football training in the heat. J Sports Sci. 2012;30:957-965.
Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, Maughan RJ, Serratosa L, Zachwieja JJ. The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26:90-95.
Edwards AM, Mann ME, Marfell-Jones MJ, Rankin DM, Noakes TD, Shillington DP. Influence of moderate dehydration on soccer performance: Physiological responses to 45 min of outdoor match-play and the immediate subsequent performance of sport-specific and mental concentration tests. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:385-391.
McGregor SJ, Nicholas CW, Lakomy HK, Williams C. The influence of intermittent high-intensity shuttle running and fluid ingestion on the performance of a soccer skill. J Sports Sci. 1999;17:895-903.
Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, Shirreffs SM. Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004;14:333-346.
Shirreffs SM, Sawka MN, Stone M. Water and electrolyte needs for football training and match-play. J Sports Sci. 2006;24:699-707.

FLUID REQUIREMENTS FOR SOCCER PLAYERS

Many athletes overlook the importance of hydration on performance, either assuming they are hydrated or they miscalculate fluid and electrolyte needs to actual sweat losses. Numerous factors play a part in optimal hydration such as sweat rate, environment, training intensity, duration, body size, and body composition. Soccer players have fewer breaks to consume fluids during a match compared with basketball, baseball, or American football players. These breaks include a 15-minute half between coming off the pitch to the locker room and back, as well as time spent with coaches reviewing strategies; this short window of time must be maximized to rehydrate. Fluids with a carbohydrate concentration of 4% to 8% at 5 to 10 ounces and breaks every 15 to 20 minutes are optimal to maximize uptake while avoiding gastric intolerance.

Studies have shown that most players do not drink sufficiently during a match to optimize hydration, replacing only ~40% to 45% of their sweat losses.^{40, 41} Maughan and colleagues measured high levels of urine osmolality in some soccer players, thereby indicating that the players started their training session dehydrated.⁴¹ Soccer players must begin training or a match well hydrated due to the limited opportunities after kick-off. The athlete should drink at least 4 hours prior to exercise; if no urine is produced or urine is dark in color, then the athlete should drink again 2 hours prior.

Table 4. Sweat Rate Calculation Steps
Release bladder/bowels, if needed. Obtain pre-weight. Weigh with minimal clothing. Start exercise. Record duration, intensity, weather and measure fluids consumed. End exercise. Wipe/towel dry sweat off skin. Remove any clothing saturated in sweat. Obtain post-weight. Add weight of fluid consumed (ie, water and sports drinks) in ounces to weight lost. Divide the total sweat loss by the duration of exercise to provide an estimation of the rate of sweat loss.

Changes in body mass, urine color, and thirst offer clues to the need for rehydration. Advanced hydration measurement includes testing urine specific gravity (USG) values. For example, testing pre-training or pre-match can be conducted to determine hydration status and trending changes from day to day. A USG value >1.020 is considered dehydrated in accordance with the NATA position statement.⁴² Calculating a sweat rate is a practical approach to determining individual hydration needs (see Table 4). Sweat rates will vary between soccer players based on their position and intensity of play, along with total match time.³⁹ Soccer players will lose ~1.5 to 4.5 liters during match play.^43-46 In general, athletes, including soccer players, should limit body weight loss to ≤2% to 3% to maintain performance. Studies have shown that >2% body mass loss can hinder soccer-specific performance, such as dribbling skills and intermittent high intensity sprinting.^49-51) Table 5 outlines the detrimental effects dehydration has on performance. Urine-specific gravity values between 1.021 and 1.030 may reflect 3% to 5% change in body weight.

Table 5. Performance Outcomes at Various Dehydration Levels
Heart rate increases 3 to 5 beats/minute for every 1% of body weight lost. Core body temperature during exercise rises an additional 0.25°F to 0.40°F for every 1% of body weight lost. Maximal aerobic power usually decreases with >3% of body weight lost. Gastric emptying slows at ≥4% of dehydration, leading to gastrointestinal upset. Muscle strength generally declines ≥5% of dehydration.

ELECTROLYTES

Sodium is the primary electrolyte lost in sweat. Other electrolytes (potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are lost at much lower levels and typically replaced through diet. Soccer players can lose large amounts of sodium; between 700 and 1500 mg of sodium/L of sweat has been reported in several studies.^42-44 Studies of professional male soccer players have shown potassium losses in the range of 165 mg/L to 234 mg/L.^42, ^51,52 Sodium in a sports drink or in food aids with water uptake from the intestines and enhances the thirst mechanism in the brain, resulting in additional fluid being retained in the body.

REHYDRATION AFTER TRAINING OR COMPETITION

Within 2 hours after training or competition, the rehydration strategy should provide water to restore body fluid status, carbohydrates to replenish glycogen (fuel) stores, and electrolytes to speed rehydration (Table 6). The volume of fluids and type of fluids over the next 24 hours dictate the hydration status prior to the next day’s training session. It is a continuous cycle. Over time, an athlete increases the risk of being in a chronic dehydrated state, resulting in lack of motivation, risk of injury, and illness, fatigue, and poor performance. The current recommendation is to drink ~50% more in volume than the amount of weight lost, such as 22 to 24 ounces/pound lost.⁵²

Table 6. Hydration
Timing	Amount	Application
Daily	3.7 L adult males 2.7 L adult females + sweat rate	Monitor urine color.
Pre-training/match; 4 h 2 h 10–15 min	16 oz or 5–7 mL/kg 16 oz or 3–5 mL/kg 8 oz	Monitor urine production and color Fluids (carbohydrates, moderate protein, low fat): milk, 100% juice, sports drink. Sodium (450-1150 mg/L)
During training/match < 1 h > 1 h	13–28 oz/h (400- 800 mL)*	Every 15–20 min. Dependent on sweat rate. Sports drink (9-19 g Carbohydrate/8 oz) Sodium (~500-1000 mg/L) Potassium (80–200 mg/L)
Recovery/after training (immediately up to 6 h post to replace 150% of fluids lost)	22–24 oz/1 lb body weight lost	Water + food (carbohydrates/electrolytes) or Sports drink • Sodium (~500–1000 mg/L) • Potassium (80–200 mg/L) • Protein 10–25 g

References

Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to development of fatigue. J Sports Sci. 2003;21:519-528.
Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, Bencke J, Kjaer M, Bangsbo J. Muscle and blood metabolites during a soccer game: implications for sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1165-1174.
Di Salvo V, Gregson W, Atkinson G, Tordoff P, Drust B. Analysis of high intensity activity in Premier League soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30:205-212.
Di Salvo V, Baron R, Tschan H, Calderon Montero FJ, Bachl N, Pigozzi F. Performance characteristics according to playing position in elite soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2007;28:222-227.
Reilly T, Thomas V. Estimated daily energy expenditures of professional association footballers. Ergonomics. 1979;22:541-548.
Osgnach C, Poser S, Bernardini R, Rinaldo R, di Prampero P.E. Energy cost and metabolic power in elite soccer: A new match analysis approach. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42:170-178.
Anderson L, Orme P, Naughton RJ, Close, GL, Milsom J, Rydings D, et al. Energy intake and expenditure of professional soccer players of the English Premier League: evidence of carbohydrate periodization. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2017;1-25.
Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL. Assessing the energy expenditure of elite female soccer layers: a preliminary study. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;2780-2786.
Bartlett JD, Hawley JA, Morton JP. Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(1):1, 3-12.
Anderson L, Orme P, Di Michele R, Close GL, Morgans R, Drust B, Morton JP. Quantification of training load during one-, two- and three-game week schedules in professional soccer players from the English Premier League: implications for carbohydrate periodisation. J Sports Sci. 2016;34;1250-1259.
Hawley JA, Morton JP. Ramping up the signal: promoting endurance training adaptation in skeletal muscle by nutritional manipulation. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2014;41:608-613.
Saltin B. Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. 1973;:137-146.
Balsom PD, Wood K, Olsson P, Ekblom B. Carbohydrate intake and multiple sprint sports: With special reference to football (soccer). Int J Sports Med. 1999;20:48-52.
Neufer PD, Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Mitchell JB, Houmard J. Improvements in exercise performance: Effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J Appl Physiol. 1987;62:983-988.
Sherman WM, Brodowicz G, Wright DA, Allen WK, Simonsen J, Dernbach A. Effects of 4 h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21:598-604.
Baker LB, Rollo I, Stein KW, Jeukendrup AE. Acute effects of carbohydrate supplementation on intermittent sports performance. Nutrients. 2015;7:5733-5763.
Goedecke JH, White NJ, Chicktay W, Mahomed H, Durandt J, Lambert MI. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion on performance during a simulated soccer match. Nutrients. 2013;5:5193-5204.
Nicholas CW, Williams C, Lakomy HK, Phillips G, Nowitz A. Influence of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on endurance capacity during intermittent, high-intensity shuttle running. J Sports Sci. 1995;13:283-290.
Burke LM, van Loon LJC, Hawley JA. Post-exercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2016;122:1055-1067.
Rodriquez NR, DiMarco NM, Langley S. Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(3):509-527.
Romagnoli M, Sanchis-Gomar F, Alis R, Risso-Ballester J, Bosio A, Graziani RL, Rampinini E. Changes in muscle damage, inflammation, and fatigue-related parameters in young elite soccer players after a match. J. Sports Med Phys Fit. 2016;56:1198-1205.
Res PT, Groen B, Pennings B, Beelen M, Wallis GA, Gijsen AP, et al.Protein ingestion before sleep improves postexercise overnight recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:1560-1569.
Snijders T, Res PT, Smeets JSJ, Van Vliet S, Van Kranenburg J, Maase K, et al.Protein ingestion before sleep increases muscle mass and strength gains during prolonged resistance-type exercise training in healthy young men. J Nutr. 2015;145:1178-1184.
Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids and athletics. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2007;6230-236.
Peoples GE, McLennan PL, Howe P, Groeller H. Fish oil reduces apparent myocardial oxygen consumption in trained cyclists but does not change time to fatigue. Presented at the Fourth International Conference on Nutrition and Fitness; May 25-29, 2000; Ancient Olympia, Greece.
Burke LM, Collier GR, Beasley S.K, Davis PG, Fricker PA, Heeley P, et al. Effect of coingestion of fat and protein with carbohydrate feedings on muscle glycogen storage. J Appl Physiol. 1995;78:2187-2192.
Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA. Influence of differing macronutrient intakes on muscle glycogen resynthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1998;84:890-896.
Reinke S, Taylor W.R, Duda GN, von Haehling S, Reinke P, Volk H-D et al. Absolute and functional iron deficiency in professional athletes during training and recovery. Int J Cardiol. 2012;156:186-191.
Escanero JF, Villanueva J, Rojo A, Herrera A, del Diego C, Guerra M. Iron stores in professional athletes throughout the sports season. Physiol Behav. 1997;62:811-814.
Heisterberg MF, Fahrenkrug J, Krustrup P, Storskov A, Kjær, M, Andersen JL. Extensive monitoring
Landahl G, Adolfsson P, Borjesson M, Mannheimer C, Rodjer S. Iron deficiency and anemia: a common problem in female elite soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2005;15(6):689-694.
Sinha A, Hollingsworth K, Ball S, Cheetham T. Improving the vitamin D status of vitamin D deficient adults is associated with improved mitochondrial oxidative function in skeletal muscle. Endocrine Abstracts, 2013;31.OC1.6
Shuler FD, Wingate MK, Moore GH, Giangarra C. Sports health benefits of vitamin D. Sports Health. 2012;4:496-501.
Hamilton B, Whiteley R, Farooq A, Chalabi H. Vitamin D concentration in 342 professional football players and association with lower limb isokinetic function. J Sci. Med Sport. 2014;17:139-143.
Ksiażek A, Zagrodna A, Dziubek W, Pietraszewski B, Ochmann B, Słowińska-Lisowska M,25(OH)D3 levels relative to muscle strength and maximum oxygen uptake in athletes. J Hum Kinet. 2016;50:71-77.
Kopeć A, Solarz K, Majda F, Słowińska-Lisowska M, Medraś M. An evaluation of the levels of vitamin D and bone turnover markers after the summer and winter periods in Polish professional soccer players. J Hum Kinet. 2013;38:135-140.
Vander Slagmolen G, van Hellemondt FJ, Wielders JPM. Do professional soccer players have a vitamin D status supporting optimal performance in winter time? J Sports Med Doping Stud. 2014,4:2.
Morton JP, Iqbal Z, Drust B, Burgess D, Close GL, Brukner PD. Seasonal variation in vitamin D status in professional soccer players of the English Premier League. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37:798-802.
Lozano-Berges G, Matute-Llorente A, Gonzalez-Aguero A, Gomez-Bruton A, Gomez-Cabelloa A, Vincente-Rodriguez G, Casajus JA. Soccer helps build strong bones during growth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(3):295-310.
Burke LM. Fluid balance during team sports. J Sports Sci. 1997;15:287-295.
Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, Shirreffs SM. Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004;14:333-346.
Brendon P, McDermott, P, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Cheuvront SN, et al. National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for the Physically Active. J Athl Train. 2017;52(9):877-895.
Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, Maughan RJ, Serratosa L, Zachwieja JJ. The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26: 90-95.
Maughan RJ, Watson P, Evans GH, Broad N, Shirreffs SM. Water balance and salt losses in competitive football. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2007;17:583-594.
Aragón-Vargas LF, Moncada-Jiménez J, Hernández-Elizondo J, Barrenechea A,Monge-Alvarado M. Evaluation of pre-game hydration status, heat stress, and fluid balance during professional soccer competition in the heat. Eur J Sport Sci. 2009;9:269-276.
Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM, Merson SJ, Horswill CA. Fluid and electrolyte balance in elite male football (soccer) players training in a cool environment. J Sports Sci. 2005;23:73-79.
Duffield R, McCall A, Coutts AJ, Peiffer JJ. Hydration, sweat and thermoregulatory responses to professional football training in the heat. J Sports Sci. 2012;30:957-965.
Shirreffs SM, Aragon-Vargas LF, Chamorro M, Maughan RJ, Serratosa L, Zachwieja JJ. The sweating response of elite professional soccer players to training in the heat. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26:90-95.
Edwards AM, Mann ME, Marfell-Jones MJ, Rankin DM, Noakes TD, Shillington DP. Influence of moderate dehydration on soccer performance: Physiological responses to 45 min of outdoor match-play and the immediate subsequent performance of sport-specific and mental concentration tests. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:385-391.
McGregor SJ, Nicholas CW, Lakomy HK, Williams C. The influence of intermittent high-intensity shuttle running and fluid ingestion on the performance of a soccer skill. J Sports Sci. 1999;17:895-903.
Maughan RJ, Merson SJ, Broad NP, Shirreffs SM. Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004;14:333-346.
Shirreffs SM, Sawka MN, Stone M. Water and electrolyte needs for football training and match-play. J Sports Sci. 2006;24:699-707.

Lower Extremity Injuries in Ice Hockey: Current Concepts

Nutrition-Related Considerations in Soccer: A Review

References

FLUID REQUIREMENTS FOR SOCCER PLAYERS

ELECTROLYTES

REHYDRATION AFTER TRAINING OR COMPETITION

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