A standardized evaluation is key
Just as a patient who presents with chest pain requires a standardized evaluation, including a pertinent history, laboratory workup, and ECG, psychiatrists may also use standardized diagnostic instruments to aid in the diagnosis of catatonia. One study of hospitalized patients with schizophrenia found that using a standardized diagnostic procedure for catatonia resulted in a 7-fold increase in the diagnosis.7 The BFCRS is the most common standardized instrument for catatonia, likely due to its high inter-rater reliability.8 Other scales include the KANNER scale and Northoff Catatonia Scale, which emphasize different aspects of the disease or for certain clinical populations (eg, the KANNER scale adjusts for patients who are nonverbal at baseline). One study suggested that BFCRS has lower reliability for less-severe illness.9 These differences emphasize that psychiatry does not have a thorough understanding of the intricacies of catatonia. However, using validated screening tools can lead to more consistent diagnoses and continue important research on this often-misunderstood illness.
Dangers of untreated catatonia
Rapid treatment of catatonia is necessary to prevent mortality. A study of patients in Kentucky’s state psychiatric hospitals found that untreated catatonia with resultant death from pulmonary embolism was the leading cause of preventable death.10 A 17-year retrospective study of patients with schizophrenia admitted to 1 hospital found that those with catatonia were >4 times as likely to die during hospitalization than those without catatonia.11 The significant morbidity and mortality from untreated catatonia are typically attributed to the consequences of poorly controlled movements, immobility, autonomic instability, and poor/no oral intake. Reduced oral intake can result in malnutrition, dehydration, arrhythmias, and increased risk of infections. Furthermore, chronic catatonic episodes are more difficult to treat.12 In addition to the aggressive management of neuropsychiatric symptoms, it is vital to evaluate relevant medical etiologies that may be contributing to the syndrome (Table 213). Tracking vital signs and laboratory values, such as creatine kinase, electrolytes, and complete blood count, is required to ensure the medical condition does not become life-threatening.
Treatment options
Studies and expert opinion suggest that benzodiazepines (specifically lorazepam, because it is the most studied agent) are the first-line treatment for catatonia. A lorazepam challenge test—providing 1 or 2 mg of IV lorazepam—is considered diagnostic and therapeutic given the high rate of response within 10 minutes.14 Patients with limited response to lorazepam or who are medically compromised should undergo ECT. Electroconvulsive therapy is considered the gold-standard treatment for catatonia; estimated response rates range from 59% to 100%, even in patients who fail to respond to pharmacotherapy.15 Although highly effective, ECT is often hindered by the time required to initiate treatment, stigma, lack of access, and other logistical challenges.
Table 314-18 highlights the advantages and disadvantages of treatment options for catatonia. Some researchers have suggested a zolpidem challenge test could augment lorazepam because some patients respond only to zolpidem.14 The efficacy of these medications along with some evidence of anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate medications, such as amantadine and memantine, suggest that there is an underactivation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and overactivation of glutamate in the brain,16 with some researchers noting the similarity between catatonia and the fear response.17 Consequently, excessive dopamine D2 antagonism or withdrawal of dopamine agonists can either bring on or worsen the symptoms of catatonia, with researchers identifying an overlap between neuroleptic malignant syndrome and catatonia.18 Although some studies suggest that second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), particularly lower-potency agents such as olanzapine, may help treat catatonia, other studies suggest using caution when initiating in patients without an underlying psychotic illness. The treating clinician may want to consider switching a patient receiving a high-potency antipsychotic to one with a lower potency, lowering the dose of high-potency agent, or discontinuing the medication altogether.
Ms. N was ultimately diagnosed with bipolar disorder, current episode mixed, with psychotic and catatonic features. Ms. N had symptoms of mania including grandiosity, periods of lack of sleep, delusions as well as depressive symptoms of tearfulness and low mood. The treatment team had considered that Ms. N had delirious mania because she had fluctuating sensorium, which included varying degrees of orientation and ability to answer questioning. However, the literature supporting the differentiation between delirious mania and excited catatonia is unclear, and both conditions may respond to ECT.18 A diagnosis of catatonia allowed the team to use rating scales to track Ms. N’s progress by monitoring for specific signs, such as grasp reflex and waxy flexibility.
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