Jacksonville Family Medicine Residency Program, Naval Hospital Jacksonville, FL (Drs. Smith and Martin); Mayo Clinic Florida, Jacksonville (Dr. McMullan); Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD (Dr. Smith) dustinksmith@yahoo.com
The authors reported no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article.
The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the US Department of the Navy, US Department of Defense, or the government of the United States.
After confirmation of the diagnosis, follow up with recommendations for lifestyle adjustment and, in certain clinical situations, pursue medical therapy.
› Measure the blood pressure (BP) of all children 3 years and older annually; those who have a specific comorbid condition (eg, obesity, diabetes, renal disease, or an aortic-arch abnormality) or who are taking medication known to elevate BP should have their BP checked at every health care visit. C
› Encourage lifestyle modification as the initial treatment for elevated BP or hypertension in children. A
› Utilize pharmacotherapy for (1) children with stage 1 hypertension who have failed to meet BP goals after 3 to 6 months of lifestyle modification and (2) children with stage 2 hypertension who do not have a modifiable risk factor, such as obesity. C
Strength of recommendation (SOR)
A Good-quality patient-oriented evidence B Inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence C Consensus, usual practice, opinion, disease-oriented evidence, case series
References
Hypertension and elevated blood pressure (BP) in children and adolescents correlate to hypertension in adults, insofar as complications and medical therapy increase with age.1,2 Untreated, hypertension in children and adolescents can result in multiple harmful physiologic changes, including left ventricular hypertrophy, left atrial enlargement, diastolic dysfunction, arterial stiffening, endothelial dysfunction, and neurocognitive deficits.3-5
In 2017, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) published clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of elevated BP and hypertension in children and adolescentsa (TABLE 16). Applying the definition of elevated BP set out in these guidelines yielded a 13% prevalence of hypertension in a cohort of subjects 10 to 18 years of age with comorbid obesity and diabetes mellitus (DM). AAP guideline definitions also improved the sensitivity for identifying hypertensive end-organ damage.7
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends measuring BP annually in all children ≥ 3 years of age and at every encounter in patients with specific comorbid conditions and in those taking a medication known to increase BP
As the prevalence of hypertension increases, screening for and accurate diagnosis of this condition in children are becoming more important. Recognition and management remain a vital part of primary care. In this article, we review the updated guidance on diagnosis and treatment, including lifestyle modification and pharmacotherapy.
First step: Identifying hypertension
Risk factors
Risk factors for pediatric hypertension are similar to those in adults. These include obesity (body mass index ≥ 95th percentile for age), types 1 and 2 DM, elevated sodium intake, sleep-disordered breathing, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Some risk factors, such as premature birth and coarctation of the aorta, are specific to the pediatric population.8-14 Pediatric obesity strongly correlates with both pediatric and adult hypertension, and accelerated weight gain might increase the risk of elevated BP in adulthood.15,16
Intervening early to mitigate or eliminate some of these modifiable risk factors can prevent or treat hypertension.17 Alternatively, having been breastfed as an infant has been reliably shown to reduce the risk of elevated BP in children.13
Recommendations for screening and measuring BP
The optimal age to start measuring BP is not clearly defined. AAP recommends measurement:
annually in all children ≥ 3 years of age
at every encounter in patients who have a specific comorbid condition, including obesity, DM, renal disease, and aortic-arch abnormalities (obstruction and coarctation) and in those who are taking medication known to increase BP.6
Protocol.Measure BP in the right arm for consistency and comparison with reference values. The width of the cuff bladder should be at least 40%, and the length, 80% to 100%, of arm circumference. Position the cuff bladder midway between the olecranon and acromion. Obtain the measurement in a quiet and comfortable environment after the patient has rested for 3 to 5 minutes. The patient should be seated, preferably with feet on the floor; elbows should be supported at the level of the heart.
